PREHISTORIC EXCAVATIONS AND STUDIES

PREHISTORIC EXCAVATIONS AND STUDIES

BY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE AEGEAN (DEPARTMENT OF MEDITERRANEAN STUDIES)

Prof. Adamantios Sampson

University of the Aegean

The Mesolithic Settlement at Maroulas on Kythnos

Kythnos is a Cycladic island in close proximity to the Greek mainland, at a distance of 60 miles from Piraeus and considerably closer to Cape Sounion. Excavation at the site of Maroulas in Loutra, initiated in 1996 (Sampson 1996), is an on-going archaeological project in collaboration with the Cyclades Ephorate of Antiquities and J. Kozlowski, Professor at the University of Krakovia (Sampson et al 2002). The site became known by a survey expedition conducted by anthropologist K. Honea (1975). Despite all objections related to the chronological horizon of Maroulas, mainly on the account of foreign archaeologists (Cherry 1981), we finally commenced excavating the site, at first for rescuing purposes, since we were convinced that the entirety of finds belonged to a pre-Neolithic era.

In the first excavation season, eight (8) skeletons recovered in the characteristic for this age “cross-legged” position were located at different points of the area (Fig. 1). The dead used to be placed inside a rock-cut cavity or a pit, either slab- or stone-lined, and finally covered with large slabs. Except for these burials, other built circular constructions were located along the entire extent of the site. The building technique of these constructions also comprised numerous slabs as well as intermediate fillings with small stones. Without a doubt, these belonged to the paved floors of shacks.

Excavation continued in the 2001 and 2002 summer seasons to reveal more areas of occupation (Fig. 2), while another burial was recovered under the floor of a dwelling. Moreover, a semi-subterranean circular construction was excavated inside a natural rock-cavity. It preserved a number of successive floors, while food residues and layers of burning were found in situ. The excavation at Maroulas will be carried out over the next years at a quick pace, especially due to the site’s close vicinity to the sea, under immediate threat by erosion.

Fig. 1. Kythnos. Mesolithic burial.

Fig. 2.Kythnos. Mesolithic pavement in Trench 2.

Melian obsidian occurs in abundance, partly considerably eroded: a large amount of untreated pieces, fragments of cores, and numerous flakes with marks of workmanship that belong to small-sized blades, scrapers, spatulae, points, and numerous “pièces esquillées”. Implements made of flint and carrying a characteristic gloss are fairly common. Nevertheless, the occupants of Maroulas have intensively used quartz for the manufacture of tools, a material coming out in abundance on the Kythnos. Stone industry artefacts at the site, under study by Prof. J. Kozlowski, are featured by Mesolithic types, while characteristic microlithic tools are not absent. Over the entire settlement occurs a rich abundance of terrestrial molluscs (snails), sea shells, and fish bones. On the other hand, animal bones are particularly scanty. The remainder of finds (burnishers, and a small number of pendant beads) are particularly rare. However, the overall rarity of finds at Mesolithic sites in Greece has been acknowledged in the past.

All these elements refer to a Mesolithic pattern already noted in the Cyclops Cave on Youra. Chronological aspects of the settlement were defined by three samples, which furnished dates between 8600 and 7800 BC. To conclude with, the site at Maroulas on Kythnos appears to be contemporaneous with the Franchthi Cave in the Peloponnese and the Cyclops Cave on Youra. This Mesolithic settlement on Kythnos is of great significance, since it constitutes the first Mesolithic open-air site with architectural remains in Greece, the Aegean region in specific.

The Neolithic Settlement at Ftelia on Mykonos

Research at Ftelia on Mykonos initiated in 1995 as a rescue excavation, and after a 2-year interval still continues as a systematic excavation undertaken by the University of the Aegean (Sampson 2002). The Neolithic settlement is situated at the innermost area of the Panormos Gulf, North to the road that leads to the modern village of Ano Mera. Since the site is orientated directly to the North and exposed to its winds, living conditions at Ftelia would have been somehow difficult almost throughout the year. However, this is not a rare case, as similar Neolithic installations have been discovered also on other Cycladic islands: Kephala on Keos (Coleman 1977), Saliagos on Antiparos (Evans- Renfrew 1968), Grotta on Naxos, as well as a number of other sites on Kythnos, and elsewhere.

From an early stage in our investigations, the architectural remains of a large prehistoric settlement (Fig. 3) started to be revealed. The settlement’s thick deposits of soil, measuring 1.60 to 2.30 m, have rescued four phases of construction, of which the earliest one is better preserved. In the last excavation season (2002), the largest part of a building in the type of a “megaron” was excavated, with walls reaching 1.50 m in height. Moreover, apsidal buildings were found, as well as two circular buildings 1.80 m in height, possibly used as granaries. Such buildings are generally uncommon in the Neolithic Age, while the state of preservation of these specific constructions at such a remarkable height finds no other precedent in the Aegean. Geomorphologic research has proved that Ftelia was a settlement about 2 acres in extent, which flourished in the Late Neolithic I. It is contemporaneous with the famed Neolithic settlement on the islet of Saliagos, near Antiparos (Evans- Renfrew 1968). A series of radiocarbon dates define occupation in the settlement since ca. 5100 till ca. 4500 BC.

Fig. 3. Ftelia on Mykonos. Neolithic buildings.

Inside the buildings, pottery fragments as well as tens of intact vases were found, exhibiting a notable variety in the quality of vases’ surface treatment and shapes. Thousands of pottery fragments, which carry white and red painted decoration, applied after firing upon the burnished surface of the vases, seem to be the products of a local workshop. Except for pottery finds, obsidian implements in a remarkable abundance should be distinguished; among these, numerous tens of arrow- and spear-heads of an excellent workmanship furnish evidence of particular specialisation in hunting. Similar arrow-heads have been recovered on Saliagos near Antiparos, but also at the site of Mavri Spelia on Mykonos, not far from Ftelia. Moreover, the amount of obsidian chips concentrated both from the surface and the strata of the excavation, as well as numerous obsidian cores, clearly show that the treatment of this material originating from Melos was being executed inside the settlement. An obsidian workshop has been located inside a room.

Female clay figurines, found at a limited depth below the surface, are impressive. One is small in size and belongs to the well-known steatopygic type, characteristic of the Neolithic Age throughout Greece. The other, measuring minimum 0.30 m in height, is thoroughly uncommon as a type: the long cylindrical neck ends in an ovoid head, oblique and inclining backwards; the triangular body carries two applied clay bosses for breasts; while, a shallow groove indicates the navel, and the buttocks are thick with pronounced steatopygy (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Ftelia on Mykonos. Neolithic figurine

The small quantity of shells and fish bones shows that the Neolithic inhabitants of Ftelia were mainly involved with land cultivation, animal husbandry, and hunting, and less with fishing.

More Neolithic remains, located on the hills to the East from Ftelia, but also in other areas, show that this settlement on Mykonos has been densely occupied already since a very early period.

The Skoteini Cave at Tharrounia, Euboea

The Skoteini Cave lies in a semi-mountainous region of central Euboea, close to the modern village of Tharrounia. The cave, ample, with a narrow entrance, overlooks a ravine. Excavation inside the cave held since 1986 till 1991, and revealed an undisturbed stratigraphic succession from the end of the Middle Neolithic period till the Mycenean Age (Fig.5). Concurrently, research extended over a plateau in close proximity to the cave, where a small Neolithic settlement was located, as well as in another area a few hundred metres further away, where a cemetery of the same age was excavated (Fig.6), with cist graves similar to those at Kephala on Keos.

Fig. 5. The Skoteini Cave at Tharrounia.

Fig.6. Tharrounia. Neolithic graves.

The use of the cave is mainly ascribed to the Late Neolithic, which in the light of the archaeological material and radiocarbon dates can be divided into four (4) phases (Sampson 1992, 1993). Thus, a more systematic use of the cave takes place in the Neolithic Age, in a period of about 2000 years (ca. 5300/5200 - 3300/3200 BC), while in the Early and Late Bronze Ages its use is rather limited. The main phase of occupation inside the cave, to which belongs the large quantity of material, is the Late Neolithic Ib (ca. 4800 – 4300 BC). The excavation at Skoteini has allowed us to establish a new Neolithic chronological scheme, basically in reference to Central Greece, at first. Setting aside the term “Final Neolithic” (Sampson 1990), we believe to approach more efficiently to our goals, namely to place within a generally accepted framework the numerous varieties of Neolithic activity in Greece.

The material represented at Skoteini, its stratigraphical succession, the constructions recovered inside, and the ethnographic information provided by the local inhabitants, assist to determine the use of the cave, which certainly would have been multiplex in character. Overall, the large number of storing pithoi in all chronological phases attests to its chief use as a store. However, there have been periods of time when the cave was used also for burials and other purposes.

Some ritual ceremonies could have taken place in connection to the increase of crop, and possibly during the storage of food surplus inside the cave, a process of vital significance for the community on which its survival depended on in periods of difficulties. The occurrence of relief human figures with stressed genitals on storing pithoi should therefore not seem bizarre, as these signify reproduction, fruitfulness, profusion, and food surplus. It is also according to C. Perlès, who studied the stone industry at Skoteini, that part of the material had been stored inside the cave not for technical reasons but for ritual purposes, and this also rests in agreement with the study of the remainder of the material.

The Cyclops Cave on Youra, near Alonnesos

The Cyclops Cave, the largest one in the Northern Sporades, is situated on the island of Youra, today uninhabited and as part of the deserted islands in the Northern Aegean. The excavation, begun in 1992 and completed in 1995, mainly extended in the first hall, close to the entrance of the cave, where occupation was traced in significant density (Sampson 1998, Sampson-Koszlowski 1998). While, research in the interior parts of the cave yielded only some limited samples of use during the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman times.

Of greatest interest are the deeper strata in the Cyclops Cave, located in trenches opened close to the entrance, which belong to the Mesolithic Age, and date from the 9^th to the 7^th millennia BC (Facorellis et al. 1998). These belong to successive levels of occupation (Fig.7), upon which hearths were found along with food residues, the latter comprising hundreds of thousands of animal, bird, and primarily fish bones.

Fig. 7. Cyclops Cave at Youra. Stratigrafical section.

Among the remainder of finds, hooks made of animal bone (numbering about 45) belong to a type to the present without any other precedent in Greece (Fig.8). These are fishhooks in different sizes that vary between 6 millimetres to 7 centimetres in length, and thus evident of a preceding long experience and specialisation in fishing. There are also jewellery made of shell, barnacles shaped in the form of ladles, as well as an abundance of stone and bone artefacts. The Mesolithic material proves that 10000 years ago the occupants of the cave, apart from animal hunting (mainly birds), were systematically engaged with the collection of seashells (barnacles, mussels), and fishing (Sampson 1996a). The recovery of very large fish skeletal remains, chiefly tuna species, shows that fishermen of such an early culture had also accomplished certain advanced navigation techniques. Without any appropriate craft, it would have been impossible for them to face the capricious weather conditions and the dangerous waters of the Northern Aegean. Moreover, the occurrence of implements made of Melian obsidian within the cave’s Mesolithic strata is another significant testimony of advanced navigation accomplishments in this age.

Fig.8. Cyclops Cave. Mesolithic bone hooks.

The Mesolithic stone industry, studied by J. Kozlowski, is also interesting. It is featured by tools mainly made of local flint, with certain particularities and no similarities to implements recovered from other Mesolithic sites in Mainland Greece (Perles 1987). A type of tool continues to be used into the Late Neolithic period and shows that the same hunting and food-collection economic patterns persisted for millennia. Some types of tools present certain similarities to objects found in Mesolithic caves at Antalya in Asia Minor, and possibly provide evidence on population transference and contacts with the Aegean region (Yalcinkaya et al. 1995 ; Otte 1995: Bostanci 1959).

A large part of the cave’s deposits date from the Neolithic Age (ca. 6300 – 4000 BC), and spanned almost the entire Early and Middle Neolithic, as well as the early phases of the Late Neolithic. Painted pottery came out already within the earliest Neolithic strata, while over the successive phase (Middle Neolithic, the beginning of the 6^th millennium BC) it reaches a point of topmost perfection, with decorative patterns influenced by the contemporary arts of weaving and embroidery (Fig.9). In the Late Neolithic I (5^th millennium BC), the use of the cave became more intensive, men being more engaged with stock-raising activity, as shown by huge amounts of animal bones.

Fig. 9. Cyclops Cave. Middle Neolithic painted pottery.

It cannot be excluded that fishing specialisation of prehistoric Northern Aegean populations would have been the outcome of a tradition originating back to late Palaeolithic times. In the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic (ca.50000 – 10000 years ago), due to the great descend of sea level, the islands of Sporades were united to Thessaly. Thus, a series of survey expeditions conducted by our team on each deserted island of this group has revealed remains of Palaeolithic occupation. It is important to note that fishing activities drastically decreased in the Early and Middle Neolithic periods (7^th – 6^th millennia BC), an observation also in effect at Ayios Petros on Kyra-Panayia. During the Late Neolithic, except for the limited collection of shells, fishing appears almost as non-existent.

The Sarakenos Cave and Investigations in Caves of the Kopais Region

The Kopais Project, initiated in 1994 and on-going, comprises the excavation of the Sarakenos Cave as well as the survey expedition of tens of caves in this region. From the area of Akraiphnion to Aliartos and the area North of Glas, occurs a great density of caves within low calcareous formations of Jurassic or Cretaceous age. The majority of caves are located at low levels, at the level of the former lake of Kopais, and some of them functioned as swallow-holes channelling the water of the lake to other lower basins or the sea. In some of the caves situated at higher levels, Neolithic occupation remains were located. Nevertheless, the most significant of all is the Sarakenos Cave, which apart from its large dimensions preserves deposits 4 to 5 m in thickness (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Sarakenos Cave. Stratigaphical section.

Excavation in the Sarakenos cave began in the early 1970’s under the direction of Th. Spyropoulos, and, as cited in a relevant article (AAA 1973), had yielded finds of different chronological periods; the publication of this material however was never to be realised. The excavation which our team initiated in 1994 respects modern methods, goes on until today, and aims at the exact dating of the strata, the definition of the cave’s use in the course of time, and the acknowledgement of economical models in diverse periods. An assemblage of excellent stratigraphical data inside the cave has offered a succession of distinct cultural phases, from the level of the modern floor till the cave’s natural bedrock (Sampson 2000).

Starting from the deeper strata, at a depth of 4.50 m, a preserved stratum can be dated to an early stage of the Upper Palaeolithic or a late stage of the Middle Palaeolithic, based on the features of lithic industry material. There were types of Mousterian technology as well as Aurignacian (Fig. 11), along with the bones of large animals, such as Equidae and goat. A superimposed stratum about 1.15 m in thickness contained abundant gravel as well as a large amount of micro-fauna, namely rodents. Despite the absence of finds, human presence was evidenced by the remains of hearths and burnt soil. The composition of soil and the occurrence of small stones originating from the erosion of the cave’s ceiling showed that the lower part of the stratum corresponded to a frigid and dry climatic phase, such as the Upper Palaeolithic. An age fixed about 12000 BC, yielded by the method of Optical Luminescence, features the end of the Upper Palaeolithic. The upper part of the stratum was dated to the beginning of the Mesolithic Age (ca. 9000 – 8500 BC).

Fig. 11. Sarakenos Cave. Palaeolithic tools.

Excavation to date has shown dense Neolithic occupation inside the cave. The quantity of pottery (Fig.12) was huge, and comprises the entire typological spectrum already known from Neolithic Euboea, while a large number of clay and marble figurines, obsidian and flint tools (Fig. 13) has been found. All Neolithic phases are represented, from the Early and Middle Neolithic periods till the last Late Neolithic IIb phase, rare in Greece, especially in caves (ca. 3800-3300 BC).

Fig. 12. Sarakenos Cave. Polychrome pottery of the Late Neolithic.

Fig. 13. Sarakenos Cave. Neolithic arrowheads.

During the Late Neolithic Ia (ca. 5300 – 4800 BC), characterised by a more intensive occupation, an extended floor that carried the holes of piles possibly shows that partitions were built inside the cave for diverse functions in spatial arrangement. Within late Neolithic strata (4^th millennium BC) quantities of carbonised seeds testify of cereals and legumes cultivation in the Kopais region. The study of pollen analysis from all the excavation strata has shown a specific succession, starting from the frigid Palaeolithic flora, passing from the hot flora in the beginning of the Holocene, and arriving at the cultivated species of the Late Neolithic.

At the higher levels, human presence was noted in the Early Helladic II and the Middle Helladic, when the cave was abandoned for unknown reasons yet.

The Early and Middle Helladic Settlement at Kalogerovrysi, Euboea

Kalogerovrysi is situated 8 klm East from the modern village of Fylla, not far from Chalkis, and very near to a spring after which the site has been named. The prehistoric settlement is not particularly large, and occupies the top and the southern slope of a low rise (Fig. 14). Excavation at the site began in 1984 and lasted at intervals till 1991 (Sampson 1993a). The greater part of the settlement was investigated, with very thin deposits preserved at the top and thicker ones on the southern slope.

Fig.14. Kaloyerovrisi. View of the site.

Occupation is assigned to the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, while the dark phase of the Early Helladic 1 is also represented, a phase that appears fairly commonly in Euboea. At several points, apsidal and rectangular buildings of the Early Helladic 2 period were excavated (Fig. 15). Two late MH phases of construction were located in Sectors I and II. A building dating from the Late Helladic I period was investigated in the southern part of Sector I. Between the MH buildings, cist graves (Fig. 16) of a similar date were found, two of which looted. The remainder of the graves, although not looted did not yield any burial offerings. Skeletal remains were well preserved and always placed in a cross-legged position. The occurrence of graves among buildings is not uncommon in the Middle Helladic.

Fig. 15. Kaloyerovrisi. Early Helladic house.

Fig. 16. Kaloyerovrisi. Middle Helladic graves.

Apart from an abundance of pottery, EH2 sealings were found, along with clay spindle whorls dating from the Early Helladic 2 till the late Middle Helladic. Moreover, three bronze objects were recovered. One belongs to the end of a pair of pincers with rounded edges, and was found inside a MH grave. The other two, a tool (chisel) and a dagger were found within a MH stratum of the settlement.

The excavation as well as a survey undertaken in the surrounding area showed that Kalogerovrysi constituted a small residence centre in the mountainous region of central Euboea during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It is evident that this region does not favour the establishment of large settlements, due to its limited potentiality on cultivation. Estimating that in the EH town at Manika (Sampson 1988), in the close proximity to Chalkis, resided some type of a central power, it appears logical that satellite settlements, similar to Kalogerovrysi, would have come under this large administrative centre, possibly in laxity.

The Limnes Cave at Kastria, in Kalavryta

The Limnes Cave is situated at a distance of 2 klm North from the modern village of Kastria and 17 klm South of Kalavryta, at an altitude of 800 m (Fig. 17). Mount Helmos, with an altitude of 2250 m, dominates the area to the East. A spacious entrance, measuring 3.50 m in height and 6.50 m in width, has always remarked the location of the cave. Speleological researches proved that the cave is situated in the bed of a subterranean river, 2100 m in length. This was certified by silt deposits formed in the main hall of the cave, where excavation trenches were opened. Investigation proved that during the Neolithic Age the cave did not function as a river, in agreement to relevant palaeoclimatic studies that generally refer to Greece and note a 1000-year phase (5^th – 4^th millennia BC) of hot climate and lack of rainfall.

Fig. 17. Cave of Lakes. The entrance.

Archaeological research lasted for three successive excavation seasons, from 1992 to 1994. Five (5) trenches were opened to investigate the cave’s deposits at various points inside the first hall, the entrance, and the walls on both sides of this. Excavation yielded mainly finds of a Neolithic date from all trenches, as well as finds of the Early Bronze Age only from the higher strata in Trenches A and C, in the interior of the cave. A small number of samples dating from historical times were found similarly in Trenches A and C, but also in Trench B, at the entrance. The extent of the trenches was limited, particularly in the interior parts of the cave, where the area of the two trenches corresponds to a mere 15% of the entire first hall. Nevertheless, stratigraphic conclusions were explicit. Thus, the use of the cave and its external area can be generally distinguished into seven phases (I – VII) corresponding to: the Late Neolithic Ia, the Late Neolithic Ib/IIa, the Early Neolithic II, the Early Helladic, the Middle Helladic, the Late Helladic I, and the Late Helladic III.

Phase III constitutes the main phase of use inside the cave, not only in the neolithic frame but overall in comparison to the later periods. It is fixed at the end of the Late Neolithic Ib period and the transitional phase to the Late Neolithic IIa, and confirmed by radiocarbon dates as well as pottery (4700 – 4300 BC).

Finds were generally scanty, except for pottery that was similarly not abundant, both inside and outside the cave. The absence of jewellery or figurines and the small number of other artefacts (Fig. 18), either could be explained by poverty of the population in use or could indicate a rigid specialisation in the use of this specific cave during the Neolithic Age. Judging from the abundance of pithoids, the cave in these times must have been used mainly for storage. One could assume that the mountainous populations of this region used the cave and the area in front of its entrance on a seasonal basis. In the Bronze Age, the use of the cave changes, and one can observe the occurrence of burials in its interior; while, occupation at its external parts no longer exists.

Fig. 18. Cave of Lakes. Obsidian blades of Late Neolithic.

Concurrently to the archaeological excavation, we have conducted an extensive ethnoarchaeological project in the mountainous region of Helmos that furnished parallels beneficial for an interpretation on the use of the Cave of Lakes.

Neolithic caves and settlements in Dodecanese

Surface surveys in recent years, together with the excavation of two caves in Rhodes have added a wealth of prehistoric material to that already known , and put the study of the Prehistory of Dodecanese on a new footing. After a systematic survey in 1976-1980 on most of these islands and the excavation of three open settlements on Yali, Leros and Alimnia and of two caves in Rhodes, the picture now emerging is one of a relatively dense distribution of sites, with similarities to Late Chalkolithic centers of Western Anatolia and to Late Neolithic of the Central Aegean (Sampson 1987).

A clear stratigraphy in the caves of Rhodes allowed the division of the Late Neolithic of the Dodecanese in four phases (Late Aegean Neolithic 1-4), contemporary with the four phases of the Late Chalcolithic in Anatolia and the Late Neolithic of the Greek mainland (LN Ia,b and LN II a,b).

The earliest occupation is represented in the lower strata of Kalythies Cave (Fig. 19,20) by a few pottery sherds, with similarities to the Hacilar and Catal Huyuk culture of Anatolia (Mellaart 1966, 1970) and is dated by a C14 determination around 5700-5600 BC calibrated. In Kalythies the phase I is contemporary with the beginning of the Late Neolithic on the Greek mainland (5300/5200- 4900/4800 BC). Thick strata indicate continuous occupation over a long period. In phase I the pottery was of three kinds: course, burnished and unslipped monochrome and painted. The painted ware (white on dark) is a type of pottery well known in the Aegean (Samos, Chios, Limnos, Mykonos, Saliagos) and in Anatolia. In phase II there is also burnished monochrome pottery and White on Dark but there is greater variety of shapes. In phase III there are both painted and monochrome wares; mainly red with a thick or thin slip.

Fig. 19. Rhodes. The Cave of Agios Georgios.

Fig. 20. The cave of Agios Georgios.

There are large numbers of querns and grinders in every level and an abundance of obsidian, chiefly from Milos (80%), under study by prof. J. Kozlowski. Plentiful human and faunal remains include a full range of basic Neolithic domesticates (sheep, goat, pig, cow). Only selected joints of deer appear to have been brought to the cave. In all levels human bones and teeth occur that indicate permanent or secondary burials.

The cave Koumelo (Fig. 21) lies on a barren rocky district near the village Archangelos. Thin layers of rainwash separate the Neolithic living floors, from which it appears that the cave was used periodically than continuously. The stratigraphy in both trenches that were opened was excellent and it was possible to distinguish two phases. The earlier one (phase I) corresponded to phase II at Kalythies (Late Aegean Neolithic 3) and the later one (phase II) to the Late Aegean Neolithic 4. Above the Neolithic levels the cave was filled with a thick deposit of volcanic ash which has been shown by analysis to be tephra from the Santorini volcano (Galloway et al. 1991). The tephra clearly came into the cave through the entrance and some holes of the roof as a result of a sudden violent downpour.

Fig. 21. Rhodes. The cave Koumelo

Neolithic occupation on Yali, near Nisyros

It appears natural that the islet of Yali (Fig. 22), situated between Kos and Nisyros, would have attracted the interest of Neolithic inhabitants from the surrounding areas. Excavation, archaeometrical research (Sampson 1998) and survey investigations indicated significant Neolithic activities in this area (Sampson 1988a), already since 1986. Scattered pottery spotted on the entire island, and building remains located on the beach as well as at mountainous points on the island date from the last two phases of the Late Neolithic (Late Aegean Neolithic 3 and 4). The most significant find belongs to a Neolithic building (Fig. 23) recovered in the SW part of the islet, almost at the top of the mountain, inside a forest.

Fig. 22. Dodecanese. The islet Yali.

Fig. 23. Yali. The Neolithic house.

Close to the building, the recovery of certain objects proved with safety that the inhabitants of Yali had employed metallurgy. Two bronze crucibles in clay (Fig. 24) testified on metal technology on the island, and would have possibly come from the East. However, bronze isotopic analysis showed that this raw material originated from the region of Laurion.

Fig. 24. Yali. Neolithic melting pots

Also significant was the cemetery, located at another point on the islet, which showed that scattered population groups were exploiting the area. The large number of graves indicated that the Neolithic community on Yali was not small.

Another element of significant information furnished by our investigations was the demolition of the myth of the obsidian from Yali, since blades made of Melian obsidian were discovered everywhere. It has been proved that the occupants of Yali would have rather crossed the open sea for the provision of obsidian from Melos, since the local material was rather unsuitable. Naturally, there was nothing to prevent the inhabitants of the near-by islands and Yali from attempting to manufacture some rough tools in the local material, but a systematic exploitation or trade of the local obsidian cannot be asserted in any case.

Thus, since the obsidian from Yali was not the main point of attraction for the inhabitants of Kos or other islands, we should seek for other economic objectives on behalf of local population groups in this era. Even the selection of sites on Yali, mainly in mountainous areas, shows that its inhabitants were engaged primarily with the widely diffused economic shapes in this period, namely agriculture and animal husbandry.

But who were those people to exploit Yali in Neolithic times? It is most possible that these population groups did not occupy the islet on a permanent basis, and that they were possibly coming and going to some larger island. This rests in agreement with modern ethnographic parallels, the absence of water reservoirs in the summer season, and more elements.

The ethnoarchaeological study of Yali between 1990 and 1996 showed that the intensive use of the islet by underprivileged inhabitants of Emborio on Nisyros during the last centuries of the Turkish Dominion may constitute a model for seasonal exploitation of small islands by moving farmers and animal-breeders, in terms of island transhumance. More than 300 constructions, which belonged to lodgings, folds, or rooms for the production of cheese, were located and studied in the NE part of Yali, while an attempt was made to determine properties and land use in different seasons (Sampson 1997a).

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